European Cultural Influences, Study Thai, ultimate worldwide guide for studying Thai language and Thai culture

European Cultural Influences

EUROPEAN CULTURAL INFLUENCES: STAND OFF, ACCEPTANCE & ASSIMILATION

In 1997, Thailand's major institutions commemorated the Centenary of King Chulalongkorn's First Visit to Europe in 1897. This visit was a momentous occasion and an important event in Thai history because it was the first European trip by any Thai monarch. Historians also refer to this visit as a diplomatic and political coup, settling once and for all, Siam's sovereignty as a free nation in Southeast Asia. Only four years before that, the King had to pay heavy pernalty for threatening the threatening behaviour of a French gun boat laying within her sovereign territory.

A conference on the Centenary was organised by Chulalongkorn University in collaboration with the European Community in Bangkok. I was invited to present a paper on the European cultural influence on the Thai culture as a direct and indirect result of this visit. The following article is the original text as presented at the conference. The topics covered are:

1. The early European presence in Siam
2. The stand-off situation
3. Siamese imagery of the European culture
4. The acceptance of European culture
5. Assimilation with the European Culture
6. The first royal vist to Europe

M.R. Chakrarot - June 1999

THE EARLY EUROPEAN PRESENCE IN SIAM

Siam has been in trade and diplomatic contact with Europe for over 500 years. During the Ayudhya period, several European nations established trading posts, missions and churches in the vicinity of the capital city. Such settlements developed into distinct communities, which may still be identified today. Many European figures have played prominent roles in Thai history. For example, one of the most powerful personages during the reign of King Narai (1656-1688) was Constantine Phaulkon, an adventurer of Greek birth, who rose to become the Chief Minister of the realm under the titular name of Chao Phraya Vichayen. Another familiar name is Alabaster who founded the noble Thai family name of Swetsila (lit. - white stone). As priests of the Jesuit Order came to spread Christianity, Dutch and British merchants to seek opportunities in commerce, contacts with the West inevitably influenced the Thai culture to some greater or lessor degree. Through the subsequent periods in history, the Thai attitude towards the European presence gradually changed from one of a stand off situation in which both sides observed each other with curiosity, to gradual acceptance and finally assimilation.

THE STAND-OFF SITUATION

During the early days of cultural contacts, the European and Thai cultures were so widely different that neither side really understood what they were experiencing. Certainly the Europeans had no knowledge at all about the Thai cultural concepts or how such concepts translated into the physical manifestations which they were witnessing. European documentation told of gilded finery pertaining to the King and his court, of riches and contrasts between the royalty, the nobility, the commoners and slaves. It is quite plain, however, that the writers understood little of what they were writing about.

The Thai concept of kingship, during the Ayudhya period two centuries or so after independence from the Khmer Empire, retained vestiges of the ancient Khmer civilisation. This was the concept of “devaraja” (god king) which the learned Indian Brahmins had introduced into Southeast Asia. The potency of the Hindu trinity: Shiva’s destructive power, Vishnu’s curative power, and Brahma’s creative power, were translated into the omnipotent power of mortal kings through the concept of “avatar” or the earthly incarnation of these gods. The Brahmins saw to it that the Thai kings conceived of themselves as reincarnations of the Hindu gods, thereby preserving their (the Brahmins) status quo in the Thai society. The Brahmin lineage continues to exist today as court advisors, astrologers and ceremonial masters, although that same status quo has been relegated to become subservient to the “kasatriya” (warrior king) caste.

The warrior king, however, also assumed the image of benevolence as “dhammaraja” (righteous king). This was undoubtedly the result of the adherence to Buddhism as the state religion. Buddhism well suited the people who sought to create a society of peace and stability. And the hybrid Hindu-Buddhist cosmology gave them a convincing and exciting image of the physical world.

It is said that some 1,900 years after Buddha’s death, the fifth Sukhothai King, Lithai, wrote the “Tribhumikatha”, more popularly known as the “Tribhumi Phra Ruang”, an extensive treatise of the Hindu-Buddhist cosmology. This work was the first Thai literary work of the Sukhothai Period (1239-1377). It gave graphical descriptions of a totally integrated physical and mythical world together with their fantastic inhabitants. It told of the mighty mountain Meru which existed in the centre of the cosmos, of lush tropical jungles, crystalline lakes and wonderfully ornamented palaces where the gods and celestial beings resided. Even since the writing of this treatise, Thai artists have endeavoured to reproduce the wonderland on earth.

The Ayudhaya kings assumed the belief that they were earthly incarnations of the Brahman Gods, primarily Indra and Vishnu. The ancient Indian myths of the ten reincarnations of Lord Vishnu, particularly the “Ramavatar”, influenced this concept. In this reincarnation, Vishnu assumed the human form of Rama to quell evil on earth. They built their palaces to befit the cosmology. The royal palace of Ayudhaya epitomised the Thai vision of what the heavenly abodes of the gods on Mount Meru must be. Such an environment is shown time and again in mural paintings and in all other art forms. The throne hall where the King granted audience to his princes and the nobility was roofed with the lofty pointed spire. The palace buildings, made of brick and masonry, were quite different from the timber houses on stilts of commoners. They stood on solid bases, which represented the mountain terrain. Highly ornate decorative elements adorned the wall surfaces. The roof in particular had abstract ornaments which derived from the body parts of the mythical animals. Clearly identifiable were the feathered wings of the half-human, half-bird “Garuda” on the roof gables and the heads of the “Naga” great snakes, which protruded into the sky. Rings of walls said to represent the mountainous rings which surrounded the great ocean in which Mount Meru stood, surrounded the palace buildings.

The devaraja who inhabited this physical environment did not live the life of a mortal. In state functions and ceremonies he was dressed in the bejewelled costume of a god, with a pointed crown. He was borne everywhere on richly gilded palanquin, chariot or barge. His feet did not touch the ground of mortals. The mortals did not dare gaze on him for fear of their lives, for the angry god welded almighty power. The Europeans, however, did look. They wrote about this image with awe, even if they understood nothing of the imagery. The European figure must have seemed equally strange to the Thai. He was overdressed for the tropical climatic conditions. His ungainly limbs did not allow for sitting on the floor and therefore needed a lot of furniture. His gestures seemed awkward and ungainly. And his conduct was overly extroverted.

SIAMESE IMAGERY OF THE EUROPEAN CULTURE

The national restoration process, which took place after the fall of Ayudhya, transformed the Thai attitude towards foreigners. No longer was Siam invincible under the protection of the devaraja. Nevertheless, the early Chakri Kings adhered to and carefully preserved the concept of devaraja. This was clearly reflected in the architecture of their Bangkok palaces and temples, built during the reigns of Kings Rama I - III.

King Rama I built the Grand Palace firstly as a stronghold to replace King Taksin’s site on the west bank of the river. He then developed it, as well as the Royal Chapel using the Tribhumi cosmology as the model. He also developed Wat Pho, the old temple to the south of the palace, into a royal temple with new buildings which derive from the Tribhumi. King Rama II built and patronised the development of so many edifices in the same line, particularly the landmark Wat Arun, the Temple of Dawn. Here, the symbolism is quite transparent. Clearly seen are the central spire, which is Meru, and the cardinal spires, which represent the four continents. King Rama III introduced the Chinese architectural decorative elements as a personal preference, intended to reinforce the celestial vision.

A number of art works and decorative elements of the period depict the Thai imagery of Europe and the European. An early Thai vision of “The European” may be seen in the mural painting in the Royal Chapel at the Temple of the Emerald Buddha. This Rama III period painting depicts Europeans as members of Mara’s forces, representing the Lord Buddha’s inner struggle prior to his enlightenment. European soldiers stand guard as portal guardians on doors and windows at the chapel of Wang Na, the palace of the heir to the throne, now part of the Fine Arts Department’s College of Dramatic Arts. In the same building, there are fanciful depictions of European cities, painted by someone who obviously had never been to Europe. The most famous mural paintings depicting European images are within the grand hall of Wat Suthat Thepwararam. Here the famous and prolific Buddhist monk, Krua In Khong, painted scene after scene of European landscapes, people and vessels, etc. in his famous series of pictorial Buddhist riddles. The series dates to the Rama IV period.

THE ACCEPTANCE OF EUROPEAN CULTURE

With far-sightedness and wisdom, King Rama IV foresaw the purposes of European interests in Southeast Asia. Before his accession to the throne, Prince Mongkut studied Pali, Sanskrit, Latin and English, and the modern sciences. His aim was not to accept the European culture, but to understand the West. After ascending to the throne, his efforts towards international relations were unprecedented. He sent his missives to Queen Victoria of England, Napoleon III of France and the President of the United States of America.

Less well known was the unprecedented decision to build a new group of royal residences in the Grand Palace in the European architectural style in 1853. This complex was known as the Phra Abhinaonives. While the building of a new palace building to commemorate a particular reign was customary, the departure from the traditional Thai style with the towering roof over the main audience chamber was radical. The King had wished to receive foreign dignitaries in their familiar environment, and to maintain the myriad of European gifts in their proper surroundings. He also wished to show to his visitors that Siam was not alien to the western culture and did not need external assistance to be elevated from barbarism.

The palace group was inaugurated in May 1859. King Rama IV resided there throughout the rest of his reign. Because of maintenance problems and space limitations, the complex was demolished during the reign of King Rama V. From photographs and etchings, we know that the Phra Abhinaonives group was built in the neo-classical style of European architecture. Most were 2 or 3 storey buildings with a rusticated base and a piano-nobile with twin Corinthian columns. The roof, door and window decorations, however, were in the Chinese style. Some buildings of this group had flat roofs with balustrades and lanterns.

Documentation also reveals that despite the European physical appearance, many aspects of the Rama IV court maintained the Thai traditional values. Photographs show that courtiers still prostrated themselves on the floor in the presence of royalty. The mode of dress and hair styling had not changed. The King wore traditional clothes while fulfilling his royal duties, but donned European clothes in the photographs which were sent with the gifts to European heads of state. The King also created royal decorations to befit the Europeans uniforms based upon the European models. This was the beginning of the replacement of the traditional regalia of bejewel rings, body chains, amulets, charms, etc. with the medals, stars and silk sashes of today.

ASSIMILATION WITH THE EUROPEAN CULTURE

When King Chulalongkorn, Rama V, ascended to the throne in October 1868, at the age of 15, he had already benefited from a more liberal system of the court education than before. Anna Leonowens and others had been his tutors. He was so well versed in English that later on in his life, he could make formal speeches in English with ease, which much impressed his hosts. As the King had not yet come of age, the affairs of state had to be entrusted to a Regent in accordance with tradition. He wisely spent the first five years on the throne gaining knowledge and experience which would influence his decisions to assimilate with the European culture.

In 1871, King Chulalongkorn went on the first of his many trips abroad. Never before had a Thai king left the country. His intention was to see for himself the western culture. Indeed he had intended to visit Europe at this early age. His regent however, cautioned that such a long journey was too hazardous, and advised short trips to the neighbouring states. He spent a few weeks visiting British Singapore and Dutch Java.

From the royal chronicles, in Singapore, he visited as many institutions as he could. They included the post office, the Anglican Church, Raffles School, the mental hospital, the prison, the telegraph office, the law court, and the fire brigade. In Java, he saw the horse-drawn tram and visited the Chamber of Commerce, the public park, the zoo, the railway station, etc. He also attended formal dinners and balls given in his honour, visited the theatre and went to shows. Upon his return and in that same year, he changed the dress code and hair styling of the royal court to conform to the European style.

On 24 September 1873, a few days after his 20^th birthday, King Chulalongkorn was crowned. The royal command proclaimed immediately after the coronation was for courtiers to stand in his presence during formal audiences, and to sit on chairs during the royal ceremonies. Equally immediate in implementation was the process which would abolish traditional servitude and slavery altogether. These two royal acts clearly indicate that he had gained in depth understanding of the European attitude towards the exotic and strange foreign cultures. He had understood that the European judged others with the measure of European cultural norms. He had decided that in terms of external relations, cultural acceptance alone was inadequate, and that Siam needed to assimilate with the western culture.

In 1875, he undertook the customary building project in the Grand Palace to commemorate his reign. He engaged the services of European architects from Singapore to build the famous Chakri Mahaprasat Throne Hall. In line with his father’s Phra Abhinaonives group, the new building was to be a Victorian style mansion. Work started in May 1876 and after some deliberation, it was decided that a Thai roof should surmount the building to preserve the royal tradition. An analysis of the Chakri Mahaprasat reveals that the Victorian style of architecture worked well with Thai cosmology. The ground floor of heavy rusticated stone exterior equates with the tall Thai style podium and can indeed represent the foothills of Mount Meru. The ornamented piano-nobile does serve to represent the celestial abode, with some degree of imagination. The grand triple spire roof serves to reinforce the concept. The building was inaugurated in 1882.

During the early part of his long reign, King Chulalongkorn carried out many reforms based upon his knowledge and experiences gained from the European colonies. In 1874, he created the Council of State and the Privy Council. Although maintaining the absolute power of absolute kingship, he appointed select members of the royalty and nobility as advisers and state counselors. In the same year, he initiated a radical educational reform, ending the centuries old system of traditional temple education. Another radical change was the investiture of his eldest son as the Crown Prince, ending yet another ancient tradition of succession through brotherhood. Development in the public services quickly followed. In 1883 the postal service was in place, in 1887 the tram system was inaugurated and in 1890 the first railway line was laid.

From 1887 onwards, the King sent a number of his sons to study in Europe. He accompanied his sons to Singapore where they boarded the cruise liners. This was a momentous decision. By so doing, the King demonstrated his vision for the future.

THE FIRST ROYAL VISIT TO EUROPE

King Chulalongkorn had expressed his intentions to visit Europe quite early on in his reign. Two important events led to the decision to do so in 1897, some twenty-nine years later. In 1891, Siam entertained a state visitor, the Crown Prince of Russia who later became Czar Nicholas II. This was an opportunity to become closely acquainted with a member of the European royalty. Then in 1893, there was the so called “ror sor 112 incident” in which the King had to secede his sovereignty over territories east of the Mae Khong river to be annexed to French Indochina, as well as vast amounts from the privy purse.

In 1897, the King went to Europe to visit fourteen European countries. The King and his entourage travelled in the royal yacht “Maha Chakri”, a modern steamer, wore European clothes and conducted themselves following the European court etiquette in place of the Thai court tradition. He visited all of the European courts and had his photograph taken with the Czar Nicholas II of Russia as diplomatic insurance against further aggression. As a result of this cultural diplomacy, international tensions ceased and Siam became a buffer state between the French and British Empires in Southeast Asia.

The first visit to Europe made profound effects on Siam’s cultural evolution. There was a new order of society which had loosened itself from the classical devaraja concept. In his effort to westernise, the King had to break out of the confines of the Tribhumi cosmology with its rings of enclosure and Mount Meru at its epicentre. He knew that no further changes could be achieved in the grounds of the Grand Palace, which was imbued with tradition, sanctity and history. In 1899, he cleared the path for a European style grand avenue and named it Rajadamnuen (The King’s Walk). It is said that the new avenue was modelled after the Champs Ellysee in Paris. It served to link the Grand Palace with a new one situated well beyond the city boundaries. The new palace was named Suan Dusit (The Garden Palace in Dusita Heaven). The name also reflected the new order in architecture.

All of the new buildings in the Suan Dusit Palace were built in the European garden palace style, completely circumventing the rules of Thai classical architecture. In 1901, he removed Vimanmek, a teakwood mansion from an island resort, and rebuilt it in the new palace as a temporary residence. In 1906, the royal residence, an airy and sprawling structure known as Ampornstan was completed. He also built a wooden house in the traditional style, a structure unfit for the devaraja to live in, as a place where he could relax in informality with friends and acquaintances. Also in 1906, he initiated the building of the grand audience hall in the European Neo-classical style, complete with a vaulted dome roof. This was to be the Anantasamakhom Hall which stands in its marble splendour today, a major landmark of the city of Bangkok.

While the grand audience hall was being constructed, the King commanded the building of a temporary one named Apisek Dusit. This hall related directed to the main open space of the garden palace where many grand outdoor functions were held. Strangely, the hall was built in the “Moorish Style” and is thus unique among all the palace buildings. Was this the King’s architectural statement relating to the Thai and European cultural relation’s? Was Apisek Dusit intended to symbolise the middle ground where East meets West? The social events taking place there certainly broke all court traditions. Here, male and female members of the court mixed freely. They rode bicycles and motorcars through the streets of Bangkok. Wonderful fairs were held. The King took photographs of his subjects and joined in fancy dress parties. He sojourned into the rural area unknown as sovereign, or with an assumed identity, to make friends with the commoners and find out about their livelihood.

Here was the complete transformation of the devaraja from a demigod, imbued with magical qualities, to a modern sovereign who lived in informality with his people. The King revealed himself to his subjects as a loving person and was beloved by all. Even today, the populace flock to his memorial statue to pay their respects to a great king.

Back to Articles about Thai Culture

Search for books about Thai Culture and Thai History

Search Now: