The doctrine of Theravada Buddhism can be found in the three-part Tipitaka. The
first of the three baskets (or sections) sets forth the discipline governing the
monastic order. The second presents the sermons or discourses of the Buddha and
contains the dharma (literally, doctrine). The third comprises the commentaries
and explications produced by learned monks in the centuries after the death of
the Buddha. It is here that significant differences exist between Theravada and
Mahayana Buddhism.
In the first basket, and central to the structure of Buddhist belief, are the
doctrines of karma, the sum and the consequences of an individual's actions
during the successive phases of his existence, and samsara, the eternal cycle of
birth, death, and rebirth. Both doctrines were derived from the Indian thought
of the Buddha's time, although he invested the concept of karma with very strong
ethical implications. Broadly, these ideas taken together assert that evil acts
have evil consequences for those committing them, and good acts yield good
consequences, not necessarily in any one lifetime, but over the inevitable cycle
of births and deaths. A concomitant to the belief in karma and samsara is the
view that all forms of life are related because every form originated in a
previous one. In the canonical view, but not in the popular one, the entity that
undergoes reincarnation is not the soul (although the idea of soul exists) but a
complex of attributes--actions and their consequences--that taken together are
said to constitute the karma of an individual. It is karma in this sense that
survives in another form.
The second basket, containing the dharma, provides the essentials that define
the way to nirvana. The foundation of the system lies in the Four Noble Truths:
suffering exists, it is caused by craving or desire, it can be made to cease,
and it can be brought to an end by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The last
Noble Truth contains the eight precepts to be followed by Buddhists: right view,
or having an understanding of the Four Noble Truths; right thought--freedom from
lust, ill will, and cruelty; right speech, which means abstention from lying,
gossiping, harsh language, and vain talk; right action, by which killing,
stealing, and sexual misconduct are proscribed; right livelihood, which requires
an individual's sustenance be earned in a way that is not harmful to living
things; right effort, by which good thoughts are encouraged and bad thoughts are
avoided or overcome; right mindfulness, or close attention to all states of the
body, feeling, and mind; and right concentration, that is, concentration on a
single object to bring about a special state of consciousness in meditation.
Following the Noble Eightfold Path conscientiously is necessary if a person
aspires to become an arhat (usually translated as saint), ready for nirvana.
Virtually from the beginning, however, the Buddha acknowledged that it would be
difficult for a layperson to follow all aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path
singlemindedly. The conditions appropriate to such pursuit are available only to
mendicant monks. The demands on the layperson are therefore less rigorous, and
most interpret the doctrine as requiring acts gaining merit so that the
layperson may achieve a condition in the next life that will allow stricter
attention to the requirements of the path.
The acts that bring merit are, in principle, those that conform as closely as
possible to the ethical demands of the Noble Eightfold Path. Acts that support
the brotherhood of monks are also included. Consequently, providing material
support, e.g., food, to the members of the sangha, showing them deference,
underwriting and participating in certain ceremonies, and supporting the
construction and maintenance of the wat have come to be the chief methods of
gaining merit. The powerful ethical content of the Noble Eightfold Path is
reduced to five precepts or injunctions. The laity are expected to refrain from
the following: taking life, stealing, lying, engaging in illicit sexual
relations, and drinking intoxicating liquors. Thai Buddhists--like many
followers of other religions--select only a few of the Buddha's teachings to
guide them. Many Buddhist principles, while not actually practiced, are
venerated as ideals.
According to some observers, most Thai place little emphasis on the achievement
of nirvana, whether as a final state after many rebirths or as an interior
condition. What is hoped for is an improved condition in this life or the next.
In Thai thinking, the ideas of merit and demerit so essential to the doctrine of
karma are linked linguistically to those of good and evil; good and merit are
both bun; evil and the absence of merit are bap. The Theravada idea of karma
(and the Thai peasant's understanding of it) charges the individual with
responsibility for good and evil acts and their consequences. Thai do not rely
solely on the accumulation of merit, however gained, to bring that improved
state into being. Other forms of causality, ranging from astrology to the action
of spirits of various kinds, are also part of their outlook.
The world of the Thai villager (and that of many city folk as well) is inhabited
by a host of spirits of greater or lesser relevance to an individual's
well-being. Although many of these are not sanctioned by Buddhist scripture or
even by Buddhist tradition, many monks, themselves of rural origin and
essentially tied to the village, are as likely as the peasant to accept the
beliefs and rituals associated with spirits.
Most important are the spirits included in the rather heterogeneous category of
phi, thought to have power over human beings. The category includes spirits
believed to have a permanent existence and others that are reincarnations of
deceased human beings. Phi exist virtually everywhere--in trees, hills, water,
animals, the earth, and so on. Some are malevolent, others beneficial.
The ghosts of persons who died violently under mysterious circumstances or whose
funeral rites were improperly performed constitute another class of phi; almost
all of these spirits are malevolent. In contrast, the ghosts of notable people
are said to reside in small shrines along the roads and are referred to as
"spirit lords." They are often petitioned in prayers and can enter and possess
the bodies of mediums to give oracles. Among the more important of the spirits
and ghosts is the evil phi pop (ghoul spirit), which, at the instigation of
witches, can enter human beings and consume their internal organs.
Another category consists of the chao (guardian spirits), of which perhaps the
most important is the chao thi, or guardian of the house compound (an
alternative name is phra phum). Fixed on a post in the compound of most houses
in Thailand's central region is a small spirit dwelling. Food offerings are made
to the chao thi on the anniversary of the spirit's installation in the house, on
New Year's Day, and on other special days. The spirit is told of the arrival of
guests who are to stay any length of time, of projected journeys by members of
the family, and of births and deaths. The spirit's intercession is also sought
during illness and misfortune.
Other spirits protect gardens, the rice fields, and the wat. The spirit of the
rice field is worshiped only once a year, at the beginning of the rice planting;
the Rice Goddess receives offerings when the seedbed is to be prepared and when
the harvest is ready. The Mother Earth Goddess often receives offerings at
transplanting time.
In addition to the rites dedicated to an assortment of spirits either regularly
or as the occasion demands, other rites intended to maximize merit for the
participants are practiced. The Buddha prescribed no ceremonies for birth,
death, and marriage, but the Hindu rites, which were adopted by the Thai people,
entail the participation of Buddhist monks. The ceremonies, which are held at
home rather than in the wat, have no scriptural sanction. The monks limit their
participation to chanting the appropriate Buddhist scriptural texts or to
providing holy water.
The propitiation of an individual's khwan (body spirit or life soul) remains a
basic feature of Thai family rites. Any ceremony undertaken to benefit a person,
animal, or plant is referred to as the making of khwan. On important occasions,
such as birth, ordination into the priesthood, marriage, a return from a long
journey, or the reception of an honored guest, a khwan ceremony is performed.
Of all the life cycle and family ceremonies, funeral rites are the most
elaborate. When a person is dying, he or she should fix his or her mind on the
Buddhist scriptures or repeat some of the names of the Buddha. If the last
thoughts of the dying person are directed toward the Buddha and his precepts,
the fruits of this meritorious behavior will be repaid to the deceased in the
next incarnation. After his or her death, other meritorious acts are performed
for the benefit of the deceased, such as attendance at the wake and provision of
food to the officiating monks. Every effort is made to banish sorrow,
loneliness, and fear of the spirits by means of music and fellowship.
Ceremonies in the wat consist of those that benefit the entire community and
those that primarily affect the sangha. The first kind include the rites held on
such occasions as Mahka Bucha (an important February holiday that marks the
beginning of the season for making pilgrimages to Phra Phuttabaht, the Buddha's
Footprint Shrine), Wisakha Bucha (a festival commemorating the Buddha's birth,
enlightenment, and death), Khao Phansa (the holiday marking the beginning of the
three-month Buddhist holy season, July to October), and Thot Kathin (a festival
during which robes and other items are given to the monks by the laity).
Ceremonies that primarily concern the sangha include ordination, confession,
recitation of the 227 monastic rules, and distribution of new robes after Thot
Kathin.
Of all the ceremonies affecting the sangha, ordination is the one in which the
laity are most involved, both physically and spiritually. Frequently, before a
young man makes his initial entry into the sangha, a ceremony is held in the
home of the aspirant to prepare him for ordination. His khwan is invited to
enter the sangha with him; otherwise, evil and illness might befall him. He is
informed of his parents' happiness with his decision, of the sacrifices they
have made for him, and of the life of austerity and discipline he is to begin.
In Thailand, it is a popular belief that by becoming a monk great merit is
gained, merit which also accrues to persons or parents who sponsor the
ordination.